Economics Test Bank Chapter 14

Chapter 14 Firms in Competitive Markets Multiple Choice 1. A FIRM HAS MARKET POWER IF IT CAN |a. |maximize profits. | |b. |minimize costs. | |c. |influence the market price of the good it sells. | |d. |hire as many workers as it needs at the prevailing wage rate. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:1REF:14-0 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Market power MSC:Definitional 2. A book store that has market power can |a. |influence the market price for the books it sells. | |b. |minimize costs more efficiently than its competitors. | |c. |reduce its advertising budget more so than its competitors. | |d. ignore profit-maximizing strategies when setting the price for its books. | ANS:APTS:1DIF:1REF:14-0 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Market power MSC:Applicative 3. The analysis of competitive firms sheds light on the decisions that lie behind the |a. |demand curve. | |b. |supply curve. | |c. |way firms make pricing decisions in the not-for-profit sector of the economy. | |d. |way financial markets set interest rates. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:1REF:14-0 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive 4. For any competitive market, the supply curve is closely related to the |a. preferences of consumers who purchase products in that market. | |b. |income tax rates of consumers in that market. | |c. |firms’ costs of production in that market. | |d. |interest rates on government bonds. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:1REF:14-0 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive 5. Suppose a firm in each of the two markets listed below were to increase its price by 20 percent. In which pair would the firm in the first market listed experience a dramatic decline in sales, but the firm in the second market listed would not? |a. |corn and soybeans | |b. gasoline and restaurants | |c. |water and cable television | |d. |spiral notebooks and college textbooks | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-0 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Applica tive 6. Suppose a firm in each of the two markets listed below were to increase its price by 30 percent.In which pair would the firm in the first market listed experience a dramatic decline in sales, but the firm in the second market listed would not? |a. |oil and natural gas | |b. |cable television and gasoline | |c. |restaurants and MP3 players | |d. |movie theaters and ballpoint pens | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-0NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Applicative What is a Competitive Market? 1. A KEY CHARACTERISTIC OF A COMPETITIVE MARKET IS THAT |a. |government antitrust laws regulate competition. | |b. |producers sell nearly identical products. | |c. |firms minimize total costs. | |d. |firms have price setting power. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:1REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Definitional 2. Which of the following is not a characteristic of a competitive market? |a. |Buyers and sellers are price takers. | |b. |Each firm sells a virtually identical product. |c. |Entry is limited. | |d. |Each firm chooses an output level that maximizes profits. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Definitional 3. Which of the following is a characteristic of a competitive market? |a. |There are many buyers but few sellers. | |b. |Firms sell differentiated products. | |c. |There are many barriers to entry. | |d. |Buyers and sellers are price takers. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Definitional 4. Who is a price taker in a competitive market? |a. buyers only | |b. |sellers only | |c. |both buyers and sellers | |d. |neither buyers nor sellers | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:1REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Definitional 5. Competitive markets are characterized by |a. |a small number of buyers and sellers. | |b. |unique products. | |c. the interdependence of firms. | |d. |free entry and exit by fi rms. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:1REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Definitional 6. A market is competitive if |(i) |firms have the flexibility to price their own product. | |(ii) |each buyer is small compared to the market. | |(iii) |each seller is small compared to the market. | |a. |(i) and (ii) only | |b. |(i) and (iii) only | |c. (ii) and (iii) only | |d. |(i), (ii), and (iii) | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive 7. A firm that has little ability to influence market prices operates in a |a. |competitive market. | |b. |strategic market. | |c. |thin market. | |d. |power market. | ANS:APTS:1DIF:1REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Definitional 8. In a competitive market, the actions of any single buyer or seller will |a. have a negligible impact on the market price. | |b. |have little effect on market equilibrium quantity but will affect market equilibr ium price. | |c. |affect marginal revenue and average revenue but not price. | |d. |adversely affect the profitability of more than one firm in the market. | ANS:APTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive 9. In a competitive market, the actions of any single buyer or seller will |a. |discourage entry by competitors. | |b. |influence the profits of other firms in the market. | |c. |have a negligible impact on the market price. | |d. None of the above is correct. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive 10. Because the goods offered for sale in a competitive market are largely the same, |a. |there will be few sellers in the market. | |b. |there will be few buyers in the market. | |c. |only a few buyers will have market power. | |d. |sellers will have little reason to charge less than the going market price. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:C ompetitive markets MSC:Interpretive 11. Which of the following is not a characteristic of a perfectly competitive market? a. |Firms are price takers. | |b. |Firms have difficulty entering the market. | |c. |There are many sellers in the market. | |d. |Goods offered for sale are largely the same. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive 12. Which of the following is not a characteristic of a perfectly competitive market? |a. |Firms are price takers. | |b. |Firms can freely enter the market. | |c. |Many firms have market power. | |d. |Goods offered for sale are largely the same. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive 3. Free entry means that |a. |the government pays any entry costs for individual firms. | |b. |no legal barriers prevent a firm from entering an industry. | |c. |a firm's marginal cost is zero. | |d. |a firm has no fixed costs in the short run. | ANS :BPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive 14. Which of the following industries is most likely to exhibit the characteristic of free entry? |a. |nuclear power | |b. |municipal water and sewer | |c. dairy farming | |d. |airport security | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Applicative 15. Which of the following industries is most likely to exhibit the characteristic of free entry? |a. |cable television | |b. |satellite radio | |c. |mineral mining | |d. t-shirt silkscreening | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Applicative 16. Which of the following industries is least likely to exhibit the characteristic of free entry? |a. |restaurants | |b. |municipal water and sewer | |c. |soybean farming | |d. |selling running apparel | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Applicative 17. Which of the following industries is least likely to exhibit the characteristic of free entry? |a. |selling running apparel | |b. |wheat farming | |c. |yoga studios | |d. |satellite radio | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Applicative 8. When buyers in a competitive market take the selling price as given, they are said to be |a. |market entrants. | |b. |monopolists. | |c. |free riders. | |d. |price takers. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:1REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Definitional 19. When firms are said to be price takers, it implies that if a firm raises its price, |a. |buyers will go elsewhere. | |b. |buyers will pay the higher price in the short run. | |c. |competitors will also raise their prices. | |d. |firms in the industry will exercise market power. | ANS:APTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive 20. Which of the following statements best re flects a price-taking firm? |a. |If the firm were to charge more than the going price, it would sell none of its goods. | |b. |The firm has an incentive to charge less than the market price to earn higher revenue. | |c. |The firm can sell only a limited amount of output at the market price before the market price will fall. | |d. |Price-taking firms maximize profits by charging a price above marginal cost. | ANS:APTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive 1. Why does a firm in a competitive industry charge the market price? |a. |If a firm charges less than the market price, it loses potential revenue. | |b. |If a firm charges more than the market price, it loses all its customers to other firms. | |c. |The firm can sell as many units of output as it wants to at the market price. | |d. |All of the above are correct. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive 22. In a competi tive market, no single producer can influence the market price because |a. |many other sellers are offering a product that is ssentially identical. | |b. |consumers have more influence over the market price than producers do. | |c. |government intervention prevents firms from influencing price. | |d. |producers agree not to change the price. | ANS:APTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive 23. A competitive firm would benefit from charging a price below the market price because the firm would achieve |(i) |higher average revenue. | |(ii) |higher profits. | |(iii) |lower total costs. | |a. |(i) only | |b. (ii) and (iii) only | |c. |(i), (ii), and (iii) | |d. |None of the above is correct. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive 24. Which of the following characteristics of competitive markets is necessary for firms to be price takers? |(i) |There are many sellers. | |(i i) |Firms can freely enter or exit the market. | |(iii) |Goods offered for sale are largely the same. |a. |(i) and (ii) only | |b. |(i) and (iii) only | |c. |(ii) only | |d. |(i), (ii), and (iii) | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive 25. Suppose a firm in a competitive market reduces its output by 20 percent. As a result, the price of its output is likely to |a. |increase. | |b. |remain unchanged. | |c. decrease by less than 20 percent. | |d. |decrease by more than 20 percent. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Analytical 26. The Doris Dairy Farm sells milk to a dairy broker in Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin. Because the market for milk is generally considered to be competitive, the Doris Dairy Farm does not |a. |choose the quantity of milk to produce. | |b. |choose the price at which it sells its milk. | |c. |have any fixed costs of production. | |d. |set marginal re venue equal to marginal cost to maximize profit. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive 27. The Doris Dairy Farm sells milk to a dairy broker in Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin. Because the market for milk is generally considered to be competitive, the Doris Dairy Farm does not choose the |a. |quantity of milk to produce. | |b. |price at which it sells its milk. | |c. |profits it earns. | |d. |All of the above are correct. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive 28. In a competitive market, |a. |no single buyer or seller can influence the price of the product. |b. |there are only a small number of sellers. | |c. |the goods offered by the different sellers are unique. | |d. |accounting profit is driven to zero as firms freely enter and exit the market. | ANS:APTS:1DIF:1REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive 29. Which of the following statements regarding a competitive market is not correct? |a. |There are many buyers and many sellers in the market. | |b. |Because of firm location or product differences, some firms can charge a higher price than other firms and still | | |maintain their sales volume. | |c. Price and average revenue are equal. | |d. |Price and marginal revenue are equal. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive 30. Which of the following statements regarding a competitive market is not correct? |a. |There are many buyers and many sellers in the market. | |b. |Firms can freely enter or exit the market. | |c. |Price equals average revenue. | |d. |Price exceeds marginal revenue. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive 31. One of the defining characteristics of a perfectly competitive market is |a. a small number of sellers. | |b. |a large number of buyers and a smal l number of sellers. | |c. |a similar product. | |d. |significant advertising by firms to promote their products. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Definitional 32. Which of the following firms is the closest to being a perfectly competitive firm? |a. |a hot dog vendor in New York | |b. |Microsoft Corporation | |c. |Ford Motor Company | |d. the campus bookstore | ANS:APTS:1DIF:1REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Applicative 33. Which of the following firms is the closest to being a perfectly competitive firm? |a. |the New York Yankees | |b. |Apple, Inc. | |c. |DeBeers diamond wholesalers | |d. |a wheat farmer in Kansas |ANS:DPTS:1DIF:1REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Applicative 34. Firms that operate in perfectly competitive markets try to |a. |maximize revenues. | |b. |maximize profits. | |c. |equate marginal revenue with average total cost. | |d. |A ll of the above are correct. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive 35. A seller in a competitive market can |a. |sell all he wants at the going price, so he has little reason to charge less. | |b. |influence the market price by adjusting his output. | |c. influence the profits earned by competing firms by adjusting his output. | |d. |All of the above are correct. | ANS:APTS:1DIF:1REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive 36. A seller in a competitive market |a. |can sell all he wants at the going price, so he has little reason to charge less. | |b. |will lose all his customers to other sellers if he raises his price. | |c. |considers the market price to be a â€Å"take it or leave it† price. | |d. |All of the above are correct. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:1REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive 7. In a perfectly competitive market, |a. | no one seller can influence the price of the product. | |b. |price exceeds marginal revenue for each unit sold. | |c. |average revenue exceeds marginal revenue for each unit sold. | |d. |All of the above are correct. | ANS:APTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive 38. For a firm in a competitive market, an increase in the quantity produced by the firm will result in |a. |a decrease in the product’s market price. | |b. |an increase in the product’s market price. | |c. |no change in the product’s market price. |d. |either an increase or no change in the product’s market price depending on the number of firms in the market. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive 39. If Cathy’s Coffee Emporium sells its product in a competitive market, then |a. |the price of that product depends on the quantity of the product that Cathy’s Coffee E mporium produces and sells | | |because Cathy’s Coffee Emporium’s demand curve is downward sloping. | |b. |Cathy’s Coffee Emporium's total revenue must be proportional to its quantity of output. | |c. Cathy’s Coffee Emporium's total cost must be a constant multiple of its quantity of output. | |d. |Cathy’s Coffee Emporium's total revenue must be equal to its average revenue. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:3REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Total revenue MSC:Analytical 40. Changes in the output of a perfectly competitive firm, without any change in the price of the product, will change the firm's |a. |total revenue. | |b. |marginal revenue. | |c. |average revenue. | |d. |All of the above are correct. | ANS:APTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Total revenue MSC:Analytical 41.If a firm in a perfectly competitive market triples the quantity of output sold, then total revenue will |a. |more than triple. | |b. |less than triple. | |c . |exactly triple. | |d. |Any of the above may be true depending on the firm’s labor productivity. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Total revenue MSC:Analytical 42. When a competitive firm doubles the quantity of output it sells, its |a. |total revenue doubles. | |b. |average revenue doubles. | |c. |marginal revenue doubles. | |d. |profits must increase. | ANS:APTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Total revenueMSC:Analytical 43. If a firm in a competitive market doubles its number of units sold, total revenue for the firm will |a. |more than double. | |b. |double. | |c. |increase but by less than double. | |d. |may increase or decrease depending on the price elasticity of demand. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Total revenue MSC:Analytical Table 14-1 |Quantity |Price | |0 |$5 | |1 |$5 | |2 |$5 | |3 |$5 | 4 |$5 | |5 |$5 | |6 |$5 | |7 |$5 | |8 |$5 | |9 |$5 | 44. Refer to Table 14-1. The price and quantity relationship in the table is most likely a demand curve faced by a firm in a |a. |monopoly. | |b. |concentrated market. | |c. |competitive market. | |d. |strategic market. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Analytical 45. Refer to Table 14-1.Over which range of output is average revenue equal to price? |a. |1 to 5 units | |b. |3 to 7 units | |c. |5 to 9 units | |d. |Average revenue is equal to price over the entire range of output. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Average revenue MSC:Analytical 46. Refer to Table 14-1. Over what range of output is marginal revenue declining? |a. 1 to 6 units | |b. |3 to 7 units | |c. |7 to 9 units | |d. |Marginal revenue is constant over the entire range of output. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Marginal revenue MSC:Analytical 47. Refer to Table 14-1. If the firm doubles its output from 3 to 6 units, total revenue will |a. |increase by less than $15. | |b. |increase by exactly $15. |c. |increase by more than $15. | |d. |Total revenue cannot be determined from the information provided. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Total revenue MSC:Applicative Table 14-2 The table represents a demand curve faced by a firm in a competitive market. |Price |Quantity | |$4 |0 | |$4 |1 | |$4 |2 | |$4 |3 | |$4 |4 | |$4 |5 | 48. Refer to Table 14-2. A firm operating in a competitive market maximizes total revenue by producing |a. |2 units. |b. |3 units. | |c. |4 units. | |d. |as many units as possible. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Total revenue MSC:Applicative 49. Refer to Table 14-2. For a firm operating in a competitive market, the average revenue from selling 3 units is |a. |$12. | |b. |$4. | |c. |$3. | |d. |$1. 25. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Average revenue MSC:Applicative 50. Refer to Table 14-2. For a f irm operating in a competitive market, the marginal revenue from selling the 3rd unit is |a. |$12. | |b. |$4. | |c. |$3. | |d. |$1. 25. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:3REF:14-1NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Marginal revenue MSC:Applicative Table 14-3 |Quantity |Total Revenue | |0 |$0 | |1 |$7 | |2 |$14 | |3 |$21 | |4 |$28 | 51. Refer to Table 14-3. For a firm operating in a competitive market, the price is |a. |$0. | |b. |$7. | |c. |$14. | |d. |$21. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Applicative 52.Refer to Table 14-3. For a firm operating in a competitive market, the marginal revenue is |a. |$0. | |b. |$7. | |c. |$14. | |d. |$21. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Marginal revenue MSC:Applicative 53. Refer to Table 14-3. For a firm operating in a competitive market, the average revenue is |a. |$21. | |b. |$14. | |c. |$7. | |d. |$0. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Average re venue MSC:Applicative Table 14-4 |Quantity |Total Revenue | |0 |$0 | |1 |$15 | 2 |$30 | |3 |$45 | |4 |$60 | 54. Refer to Table 14-4. For a firm operating in a competitive market, the price is |a. |$45. | |b. |$30. | |c. |$15. | |d. |$0. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Applicative 55. Refer to Table 14-4. For a firm operating in a competitive market, the marginal revenue is |a. |$45. | |b. |$30. | |c. |$15. | |d. |$0. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Marginal revenue MSC:Applicative 56.Refer to Table 14-4. For a firm operating in a competitive market, the average revenue is |a. |$45. | |b. |$30. | |c. |$15. | |d. |$0. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Average revenue MSC:Applicative Table 14-5 |Quantity |Total Revenue | |12 |$132 | |13 |$143 | |14 |$154 | |15 |$165 | |16 |$176 | 57. Refer to Table 14-5.The price of the product is |a. |$9. | |b. |$11. | |c. |$13. | | d. |$15. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:1REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Applicative 58. Refer to Table 14-5. The average revenue when 14 units are produced and sold is |a. |$9. | |b. |$11. | |c. |$13. | |d. |$15. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:1REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Average revenue MSC:Analytical 59. Refer to Table 14-5. The marginal revenue of the 12th unit is |a. |$9. | |b. |$10. | |c. |$11 | |d. The marginal revenue cannot be determined without knowing the total revenue when 11 units are sold. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Marginal revenue MSC:Analytical Table 14-6 The following table presents cost and revenue information for a firm operating in a competitive industry. |COSTS |REVENUES | |Quantity |Total |Marginal |Quantity |Price |Total |Marginal | |Produced |Cost |Cost |Demanded | Revenue |Revenue | |  0 |$100 |  Ã¢â‚¬â€ |  0 |  $120 | |  Ã¢â‚¬â€ | |  1 |$150 | |  1 |  $120 | | | |  2 |$202 | |  2 |  $120 | | | |  3 |$257 | |  3 |  $120 | | | |  4 |$317 | |  4 |  $120 | | | |  5 |$385 | |  5 |  $120 | | | |  6 |$465 | |  6 |  $120 | | | |  7 |$562 | |  7 |  $120 | | | |  8 |$682 | |  8 |  $120 | | | 60. Refer to Table 14-6. What is the total revenue from selling 7 units? |a. $120 | |b. |$490 | |c. |$562 | |d. |$840 | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Total revenue MSC:Applicative 61. Refer to Table 14-6. What is the total revenue from selling 4 units? |a. |$120 | |b. |$257 | |c. $317 | |d. |$480 | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Total revenue MSC:Applicative 62. Refer to Table 14-6. What is the marginal revenue from selling the 3rd unit? |a. |$55 | |b. |$120 | |c. |$137 | |d. |$140 | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Marginal revenue MSC:Applicative 63. Refer to Table 14-6. What is the average revenue when 4 units are sold? |a. |$60 | |b. |$120 | |c. |$125 | |d. |$197 | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Average revenue MSC:Applicative 64. Which of the following statements is correct? a. |For all firms, marginal revenue equals the price of the good. | |b. |Only for competitive firms does average revenue equal the price of the good. | |c. |Marginal revenue can be calculated as total revenue divided by the quantity sold. | |d. |Only for competitive firms does average revenue equal marginal revenue. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:3REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competition TOP:Average revenue | Marginal revenueMSC:Interpretive 65. Suppose a firm in a competitive market earned $1,000 in total revenue and had a marginal revenue of $10 for the last unit produced and sold. What is the average revenue per unit, and how many units were sold? |a. $5 and 50 units | |b. |$5 and 100 units | |c. |$10 and 50 units | |d. |$10 and 100 units | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionT OP:Average revenue MSC:Applicative 66. Which of the following statements regarding a competitive firm is correct? |a. |Because demand is downward sloping, if a firm increases its level of output, the firm will have to charge a lower | | |price to sell the additional output. | |b. If a firm raises its price, the firm may be able to increase its total revenue even though it will sell fewer units. | |c. |By lowering its price below the market price, the firm will benefit from selling more units at the lower price than | | |it could have sold by charging the market price. | |d. |For all firms, average revenue equals the price of the good. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Average revenue MSC:Analytical 67. Suppose a firm in a competitive market produces and sells 150 units of output and earns $1,800 in total revenue from the sales. If the firm increases its output to 200 units, the average revenue of the 200th unit will be |a. less than $12. | |b. |more th an $12. | |c. |$12. | |d. |Any of the above may be correct depending on the price elasticity of demand for the product. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Average revenue MSC:Analytical 68. Suppose a firm in a competitive market produces and sells 150 units of output and earns $1,800 in total revenue from the sales. If the firm increases its output to 200 units, total revenue will be |a. |$2,000. | |b. |$2,400. | |c. |$4,200. | |d. |We do not have enough information to answer the question. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Total revenue MSC:Analytical 69.Firms operating in competitive markets produce output levels where marginal revenue equals |a. |price. | |b. |average revenue. | |c. |total revenue divided by output. | |d. |All of the above are correct. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competition TOP:Marginal revenue | Average revenueMSC:Applicative 70. For a competitive firm, |a. |total revenue equals a verage revenue. | |b. |total revenue equals marginal revenue. | |c. |total cost equals marginal revenue. | |d. |average revenue equals marginal revenue. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:1REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competition TOP:Marginal revenue | Average revenueMSC:Definitional 71.Suppose that a firm operating in perfectly competitive market sells 100 units of output. Its total revenues from the sale are $500. Which of the following statements is correct? |(i) |Marginal revenue equals $5. | |(ii) |Average revenue equals $5. | |(iii) |Price equals $5. | |a. |(i) only | |b. |(iii) only | |c. |(i) and (ii) only | |d. |(i), (ii), and (iii) | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Marginal revenue | Average revenueMSC:Analytical 72. Suppose that a firm operating in perfectly competitive market sells 200 units of output at a price of $3 each. Which of the following statements is correct? |(i) |Marginal revenue equals $3. | |(ii) |Average revenue equals $600. | |(iii) |Ave rage revenue exceeds marginal revenue, but we don’t know by how much. | |a. |(i) only | |b. |(iii) only | |c. |(i) and (ii) only | |d. (i), (ii), and (iii) | ANS:APTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competition TOP:Marginal revenue | Average revenueMSC:Analytical 73. Suppose that a firm operating in perfectly competitive market sells 300 units of output at a price of $3 each. Which of the following statements is correct? |(i) |Marginal revenue equals $3. | |(ii) |Average revenue equals $100. | |(iii) |Total revenue equals $300. | |a. |(i) only | |b. |(iii) only | |c. (i) and (ii) only | |d. |(i), (ii), and (iii) | ANS:APTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competition TOP:Marginal revenue | Average revenueMSC:Analytical 74. Suppose that a firm operating in perfectly competitive market sells 400 units of output at a price of $4 each. Which of the following statements is correct? |(i) |Marginal revenue equals $4. | |(ii) |Average revenue equals $100. | |(iii) |Total revenue equals $1,600. | |a. |(i) only | |b. (iii) only | |c. |(i) and (iii) only | |d. |(i), (ii), and (iii) | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competition TOP:Marginal revenue | Average revenueMSC:Analytical 75. For a firm operating in a competitive industry, which of the following statements is not correct? |a. |Price equals average revenue. | |b. |Price equals marginal revenue. | |c. |Total revenue is constant. | |d. |Marginal revenue is constant. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Marginal revenue | Average revenueMSC:Interpretive 76. For a firm in a perfectly competitive market, the price of the good is always |a. |equal to marginal revenue. | |b. |equal to total revenue. | |c. |greater than average revenue. | |d. |equal to the firm’s efficient scale of output. | ANS:APTS:1DIF:1REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Marginal revenue MSC:Interpretive 77. Suppose a firm in a competitive market produces and se lls 8 units of output and has a marginal revenue of $8. 00. What would be the firm's total revenue if it instead produced and sold 4 units of output? |a. |$4 | |b. |$8 | |c. $32 | |d. |$64 | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Marginal revenue MSC:Applicative 78. Whenever a perfectly competitive firm chooses to change its level of output, its marginal revenue |a. |increases if MR < ATC and decreases if MR > ATC. | |b. |does not change. | |c. |increases. | |d. |decreases. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:1REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Marginal revenue MSC:Interpretive 79. Suppose that in a competitive market the equilibrium price is $2. 50.What is marginal revenue for the last unit sold by the typical firm in this market? |a. |less than $2. 50 | |b. |more than $2. 50 | |c. |exactly $2. 50 | |d. |The marginal revenue cannot be determined without knowing the actual quantity sold by the typical firm. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:1REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competi tionTOP:Marginal revenue MSC:Interpretive 80. For an individual firm operating in a competitive market, marginal revenue equals |a. |average revenue and the price for all levels of output. | |b. |average revenue, which is greater than the price for all levels of output. | |c. average revenue, the price, and marginal cost for all levels of output. | |d. |marginal cost, which is greater than average revenue for all levels of output. | ANS:APTS:1DIF:2REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competition TOP:Marginal revenue | Average revenueMSC:Interpretive 81. If the market elasticity of demand for potatoes is -0. 3 in a perfectly competitive market, then the individual farmer's elasticity of demand |a. |will also be -0. 3. | |b. |depends on how large a crop the farmer produces. | |c. |will range between -0. 3 and -1. 0. | |d. |will be infinite. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:3REF:14-1 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Elasticity MSC:AnalyticalProfit Maximization and the Competitive Firm's Supply Curve 1. IF A COMPETITIVE FIRM IS CURRENTLY PRODUCING A LEVEL OF OUTPUT AT WHICH MARGINAL REVENUE EXCEEDS MARGINAL COST, THEN |a. |a one-unit increase in output will increase the firm's profit. | |b. |a one-unit decrease in output will increase the firm's profit. | |c. |total revenue exceeds total cost. | |d. |total cost exceeds total revenue. | ANS:APTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive firms MSC:Analytical 2. If a competitive firm is currently producing a level of output at which marginal cost exceeds marginal revenue, then |a. |a one-unit increase in output will increase the firm's profit. | |b. a one-unit decrease in output will increase the firm's profit. | |c. |total revenue exceeds total cost. | |d. |total cost exceeds total revenue. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive firms MSC:Analytical 3. If a competitive firm is currently producing a level of output at which marginal cost exceeds marginal revenue, then |a . |average revenue exceeds marginal cost. | |b. |the firm is earning a positive profit. | |c. |decreasing output would increase the firm's profit. | |d. |All of the above are correct. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive firms MSC:Analytical 4. Comparing marginal revenue to marginal cost (i) |reveals the contribution of the last unit of production to total profit. | |(ii) |is helpful in making profit-maximizing production decisions. | |(iii) |tells a firm whether its fixed costs are too high. | |a. |(i) only | |b. |(i) and (ii) only | |c. |(ii) and (iii) only | |d. |(i) and (iii) only | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive firms MSC:Interpretive 5. At the profit-maximizing level of output, |a. |marginal revenue equals average total cost. | |b. |marginal revenue equals average variable cost. | |c. |marginal revenue equals marginal cost. | |d. |average revenue equals average total cost. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2RE F:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive firms MSC:Interpretive 6. The intersection of a firm's marginal revenue and marginal cost curves determines the level of output at which |a. |total revenue is equal to variable cost. | |b. |total revenue is equal to fixed cost. | |c. |total revenue is equal to total cost. | |d. |profit is maximized. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive firms MSC:Interpretive 7. For a certain firm, the 100th unit of output that the firm produces has a marginal revenue of $10 and a marginal cost of $7. It follows that the |a. |production of the 100th unit of output increases the firm's profit by $3. | |b. |production of the 100th unit of output increases the firm's average total cost by $7. | |c. |firm's profit-maximizing level of output is less than 100 units. | |d. |production of the 99th unit of output must increase the firm’s profit by less than $3. | ANS:APTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perf ect competitionTOP:Competitive firms MSC:Analytical 8.For a certain firm, the 100th unit of output that the firm produces has a marginal revenue of $10 and a marginal cost of $11. It follows that the |a. |production of the 100th unit of output increases the firm's profit by $1. | |b. |production of the 100th unit of output increases the firm's average total cost by $1. | |c. |firm's profit-maximizing level of output is less than 100 units. | |d. |production of the 110th unit of output must increase the firm’s profit but by less than $1. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive firms MSC:Analytical 9. A certain competitive firm sells its output for $20 per unit. The 50th unit of output that the firm produces has a marginal cost of $22.Production of the 50th unit of output does not necessarily |a. |increase the firm's total revenue by $20. | |b. |increase the firm's total cost by $22. | |c. |decrease the firm's profit by $2. | |d. |increase t he firm’s average variable cost by $0. 44. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:3REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive firms MSC:Analytical 10. Sam sells soybeans to a broker in Chicago, Illinois. Because the market for soybeans is generally considered to be competitive, Sam maximizes his profit by choosing |a. |to produce the quantity at which average variable cost is minimized. | |b. |to produce the quantity at which average fixed cost is minimized. |c. |to sell at a price where marginal cost is equal to average total cost. | |d. |the quantity at which market price is equal to Sam's marginal cost of production. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive firms MSC:Analytical 11. If a competitive firm is selling 1,000 units of its product at a price of $9 per unit and earning a positive profit, then |a. |its total cost is less than $9,000. | |b. |its marginal revenue is less than $9. | |c. |its average revenue is greater than $9. | |d. |the firm cannot be a competitive firm because competitive firms cannot earn positive profits. | ANS:APTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive firms MSC:Analytical 12. If a competitive firm is selling 1,000 units of its product at a price of $8 per unit and earning a positive profit, then |a. |its average revenue is greater than $8. | |b. |its marginal revenue is less than $8. | |c. |its total cost is less than $8,000. | |d. |All of the above are correct. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive firms MSC:Analytical 13. Max sells maps. The map industry is competitive. Max hires a business consultant to analyze his company’s financial records. The consultant recommends that Max increase his production. The consultant must have concluded that Max’s |a. total revenues exceed his total accounting costs. | |b. |marginal revenue exceeds his total cost. | |c. |marginal revenue exceeds his marginal cost. | |d. |margina l cost exceeds his marginal revenue. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive firms MSC:Interpretive 14. Christopher is a professional tennis player who gives tennis lessons. The industry is competitive. Christopher hires a business consultant to analyze his financial records. The consultant recommends that Christopher give fewer tennis lessons. The consultant must have concluded that Christopher’s |a. |total revenues exceed his total accounting costs. | |b. marginal revenue exceeds his total cost. | |c. |marginal revenue exceeds his marginal cost. | |d. |marginal cost exceeds his marginal revenue. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive firms MSC:Interpretive 15. Laura is a gourmet chef who runs a small catering business in a competitive industry. Laura specializes in making wedding cakes. Laura sells 20 wedding cakes per month. Her monthly total revenue is $5,000. The marginal cost of making a wedding cake is $300. In order to maximize profits, Laura should |a. |make more than 20 wedding cakes per month. | |b. |make fewer than 20 wedding cakes per month. | |c. continue to make 20 wedding cakes per month. | |d. |We do not have enough information with which to answer the question. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:3REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive firms MSC:Analytical 16. Laura is a gourmet chef who runs a small catering business in a competitive industry. Laura specializes in making wedding cakes. Laura sells 20 wedding cakes per month. Her monthly total revenue is $5,000. The marginal cost of making a wedding cake is $200. In order to maximize profits, Laura should |a. |make more than 20 wedding cakes per month. | |b. |make fewer than 20 wedding cakes per month. | |c. |continue to make 20 wedding cakes per month. | |d. We do not have enough information with which to answer the question. | ANS:APTS:1DIF:3REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive firms MS C:Analytical 17. Marcia is a fashion designer who runs a small clothing business in a competitive industry. Marcia specializes in making designer dresses. Marcia sells 10 dresses per month. Her monthly total revenue is $5,000. The marginal cost of making a dress is $400. In order to maximize profits, Marcia should |a. |make more than 10 dresses per month. | |b. |make fewer than 10 dresses per month. | |c. |continue to make 10 dresses per month. | |d. |We do not have enough information with which to answer the question. | ANS:APTS:1DIF:3REF:14-2NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive firms MSC:Analytical 18. Marcia is a fashion designer who runs a small clothing business in a competitive industry. Marcia specializes in making designer dresses. Marcia sells 10 dresses per month. Her monthly total revenue is $5,000. The marginal cost of making a dress is $500. In order to maximize profits, Marcia should |a. |make more than 10 dresses per month. | |b. |make fewer than 10 dres ses per month. | |c. |continue to make 10 dresses per month. | |d. |We do not have enough information with which to answer the question. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:3REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive firms MSC:Analytical 19.Marcia is a fashion designer who runs a small clothing business in a competitive industry. Marcia specializes in making designer dresses. Marcia sells 10 dresses per month. Her monthly total revenue is $5,000. The marginal cost of making a dress is $600. In order to maximize profits, Marcia should |a. |make more than 10 dresses per month. | |b. |make fewer than 10 dresses per month. | |c. |continue to make 10 dresses per month. | |d. |We do not have enough information with which to answer the question. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:3REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive firms MSC:Analytical 20. A competitive firm has been selling its output for $20 per unit and has been maximizing its profit, which is positive.Then, the price rises to $25, a nd the firm makes whatever adjustments are necessary to maximize its profit at the now-higher price. Once the firm has adjusted, its |a. |quantity of output is higher than it was previously. | |b. |average total cost is higher than it was previously. | |c. |marginal revenue is higher than it was previously. | |d. |All of the above are correct. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:3REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive firms MSC:Interpretive 21. A competitive firm has been selling its output for $20 per unit and has been maximizing its profit, which is positive. Then, the price falls to $18, and the firm makes whatever adjustments are necessary to maximize its profit at the now-lower price. Once the firm has adjusted, its |a. quantity of output is lower than it was previously. | |b. |average total cost is lower than it was previously. | |c. |marginal cost is higher than it was previously. | |d. |All of the above are correct. | ANS:APTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competit ionTOP:Competitive firms MSC:Interpretive 22. A competitive firm has been selling its output for $10 per unit and has been maximizing its profit. Then, the price rises to $14, and the firm makes whatever adjustments are necessary to maximize its profit at the now-higher price. Once the firm has adjusted, its |a. |marginal revenue is lower than it was previously. | |b. |marginal cost is lower than it was previously. | |c. quantity of output is higher than it was previously. | |d. |All of the above are correct. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive firms MSC:Interpretive 23. When profit-maximizing firms in competitive markets are earning profits, |a. |market demand must exceed market supply at the market equilibrium price. | |b. |market supply must exceed market demand at the market equilibrium price. | |c. |new firms will enter the market. | |d. |the most inefficient firms will be encouraged to leave the market. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2 NAT:Ana lyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive markets MSC:Interpretive Table 14-7Suppose that a firm in a competitive market faces the following revenues and costs: | |Marginal |Marginal | |Quantity |Cost |Revenue | |12 |$5 |$9 | |13 |$6 |$9 | |14 |$7 |$9 | |15 |$8 |$9 | |16 |$9 |$9 | |17 |$10   |$9 | 24. Refer to Table 14-7. If the firm is currently producing 14 units, what would you advise the owners? |a. |decrease quantity to 13 units | |b. |increase quantity to 17 units | |c. |continue to operate at 14 units | |d. increase quantity to 16 units | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:1REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Profit maximization MSC:Applicative 25. Refer to Table 14-7. If the firm is maximizing profit, how much profit is it earning? |a. |$0 | |b. |$1 | |c. |$10 | |d. |There is insufficient data to determine the firm’s profit. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Profit MSC:Applicative Table 14-8Suppose that a firm in a competitive market faces the following revenues and costs: |Quantity |Total Revenue |Total Cost | |0 |$0 |$3 | |1 |$7 |$5 | |2 |$14 |$8 | |3 |$21 |$12 | |4 |$28 |$17 | |5 |$35 |$23 | |6 |$42 |$30 | |7 |$49 |$38 | 26. Refer to Table 14-8.The firm will not produce an output level beyond |a. |4 units. | |b. |5 units. | |c. |6 units. | |d. |7 units. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Profit maximization MSC:Applicative 27. Refer to Table 14-8. The firm will produce a quantity greater than 4 because at 4 units of output, marginal cost |a. |is less than marginal revenue. | |b. |equals marginal revenue. | |c. |is greater than marginal revenue. | |d. |is minimized. | ANS:APTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Profit maximization MSC:Applicative 28. Refer to Table 14-8. In order to maximize profits, the firm will produce |a. |1 unit of output because marginal cost is minimized. | |b. 4 units of output because marginal revenue exceeds marginal cost. | |c. |6 units of output because marginal revenue equals marginal cost. | |d. |8 units of output because total revenue is maximized. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Profit maximization MSC:Applicative Table 14-9 Suppose that a firm in a competitive market faces the following revenues and costs: |Quantity |Total Revenue |Total Cost | |0 |$0 |$10 | |1 | $9 | $14 | |2 $18 | $19 | |3 |$27 | $25 | |4 |$36 | $32 | |5 |$45 | $40 | |6 |$54 | $49 | |7 |$63 | $59 | |8 |$72 | $70 | |9 |$81 | $82 | 29. Refer to Table 14-9. If the firm produces 4 units of output, |a. |marginal cost is $4. | |b. |total revenue is greater than variable cost. | |c. |marginal revenue is less than marginal cost. | |d. |the firm is maximizing profit. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Competitive firms MSC:Analytical 30. Refer to Table 14-9. At which quantity of output is marginal revenue equal to marginal cost? |a. 3 units | |b. |6 units | |c. |8 units | |d. |9 units | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Profit maximization MSC:Applicative 31. Refer to Table 14-9. In order to maximize profit, the firm will produce a level of output where marginal revenue is equal to |a. |$6. | |b. |$7. | |c. |$8. | |d. |$9. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Profit maximization MSC:Applicative 32. Refer to Table 14-9. In order to maximize profit, the firm will produce a level of output where marginal cost is equal to |a. |$5. | |b. |$7. | |c. |$9. | |d. |$10. | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Profit maximization MSC:Applicative 33. Refer to Table 14-9. The maximum profit available to the firm is |a. |$2. | |b. |$3. | |c. |$4. | |d. |$5. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Profit maximization MSC:Applicative 34. Refer to Table 14-9. If the firm’s marginal cost is $11, it should |a. |increase production to maximize profit. | |b. increase the pri ce of the product to maximize profit. | |c. |advertise to attract additional buyers to maximize profit. | |d. |reduce production to increase profit. | ANS:DPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Profit maximization MSC:Analytical 35. Refer to Table 14-9. If the firm’s marginal cost is $5, it should |a. |reduce fixed costs by lowering production. | |b. |increase production to maximize profit. | |c. |decrease production to maximize profit. | |d. |maintain its current level of production to maximize profit. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Profit maximization MSC:Analytical Table 14-10Suppose that a firm in a competitive market faces the following revenues and costs: |Quantity |Total Revenue |Total Cost | |0 |$0 |$3 | |1 |$7 |$5 | |2 |$14 |$9 | |3 |$21 |$15 | |4 |$28 |$23 | |5 |$35 |$33 | |6 |$42 |$45 | |7 |$49 |$59 | 36. Refer to Table 14-10. The marginal cost of producing the 4th unit is |a. |$7. | |b. |$8. | |c. |$10. | |d. | $23. | ANS:BPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Marginal cost MSC:Applicative 37. Refer to Table 14-10. At which level of production will the firm maximize profit? |a. |3 units | |b. |4 units | |c. |5 units | |d. 6 units | ANS:APTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2 NAT:AnalyticLOC:Perfect competitionTOP:Profit maximization MSC:Applicative 38. Refer to Table 14-10. If the firm produces the profit-maximizing level of production, how much profit will the firm earn? |a. |$2 | |b. |$4 | |c. |$6 | |d. |$8 | ANS:CPTS:1DIF:2REF:14-2

Cipero River

Methodology Where was data collected? Data was collected at Cipero River, South Trinidad The Cipreo River was chosen as the area of study for pollution. The study of pollution was ideal for the area, as it is a major area which is situated near the San Fernando region, these very rivers banks where also overflown of the year 2010. When was data collected? The field study was conducted on June 12th 2012, between the hours of 8. am. and 10. am. How was data collected? Data was obtained by the use of various instruments, such as a * Camera * Pen Stationary paper * Measuring tape * Stopwatch * String * Cups * PH meter What was done to obtain this data? * 7 points of the Cipero river were examined, at each point of the river a cup was lowered into the water, by the use of the string, to obtain water from the river, the PH meter was then used to determine whether that part of the water was polluted, by showing results from the test either being acidic or alkaline. * Data was also obtained, by determining the velocity of the water at each point of the river, which was visited. 1.Stationary paper was used to make a paper boat 2. Measuring tape was then used to measure a certain distance, this determined the departure and arrival of the boat at the given area. 3. The boat was then released and the stopwatch immediately started 4. When the paper boat passed the required distance the stopwatch was then stopped, results where then recorded. Aim * To identify the causes and consequences of pollution, at various points along Cipero River South, Trinidad. Analysis and Discussion Do you know the meaning of the word pollution?Longman Geography for CSEC gives the definition as, â€Å"†¦the unclean state of the environment resulting in physical, chemical and biological changes that can seriously affect ecological systems. † Pollution results from the improper disposal of waste, whether solid, liquid or gas, with this being said from the results which were obtained at Ciprero River it is my belief that the river is polluted. Seven points of the river were examined at the river and at each point which was visited there was pollution of various forms present.At the beginning of the river it was slightly polluted there was little improper disposal of unwanted materials such as garbage and iron present, this may have been due to individuals who pass nearby the river occasionally, and also due to motor vehicles who are constantly passing on the roads on a daily day to day basis. Despite this it was noticed that as I examined more and more points of the river, the more polluted it seemed. At point four of the river there was pollution present in the water due to improper drainage caused by industries, industrial waste was seen circulating in the water.At various parts of the water it was brown and murky black in color, it also had an offensive smell. There are three types of major pollution that can be observed at the Cipero River. Land pollution is on e of them, the Cipero River is located in an area which is close to the town San Fernando, many people on a daily bases pass through this area to go to attend their jobs, and also to reach to the town. It can be said that people often throw and dispose of their garbage improperly and due to the constant presence of individuals passing through this region, more and more garbage is accumulating near and inside the river.Water pollution is the second major form of pollution, in the form of sewage due to improper drainage. Water enters the river due to the housing developments poor drainage system and also from industries that release harmful chemicals and waste into the water, this affects the color and quality of the water. Water pollution, also poses a threat to the animal species that are present in the water, it was observed that at point one of the river fishes and alligators were seen living in this river as their habitat, when the water becomes polluted and they can’t sur vive, what will be the outcome?!Offensive odour also presents itself as pollution, improper drainage from people’s houses and industries enters the water causing it to have an unpleasant odour. The Cipero River is also located on a road which is constantly busy, sometimes at night people may also not have a choice and urinate near the river, this along with the water pollution and land pollution increases the smell of the river making it smell more fowl.Conclusion Evidently there is a problem of pollution which is present at the Cipero River, due to types of pollution such as, sewage, offensive odour, and waste water. This is mainly due to poor waste and sewage practices and poor regulation of drainage, this problem can be easily stopped if individuals are willing to make a difference. In conclusion, the matter of pollution is one that is not taken seriously in Trinidad and Tobago, all around us every day we see pollution existing, yet still nobody seems to care.Pollution is something that should be addressed more regularly because although it may seem like it’s not important, it is. Table Of Contents The Aim of the study Location of field study Methodology Presentation of data Analysis and Discussion Conclusion Bibliography Presentation of data Bibliography * The site of Cipero River South Trinidad * Paul Guiness et al. Geography for CSEC. Nelson Thornes, 2008 Name: Karishma Ramtahal School: Parvati Girls Hindu College Class: 5M1 Topic: Pollution at Cipero River South Trinidad

Presentation of Self in Everyday Life Essay

A Canadian-American sociologist/writer named Erving Goffman, proposed the dramaturgical perspective or the theory of â€Å"dramaturgy† in his book: The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, in order to explain the behavior of people. The book catered the interest of many readers as it was published initially in 1956. Not only mentioning the successful integration of the dramaturgical approach as a major contribution in Sociology, Goffman, was also criticized for the detraction of such authentic-written style of research he used as compared to the conventional researches that was used by many researchers and proponents of some theories. Goffman, as a competent and keen observant, combined different theories related to support and create his new theory of dramaturgy (Sannicolas, 1997). Moreover, the focus of this paper then, is to discuss the relevance of dramaturgy in everyday scenario of a man’s real life. Body Dramaturgy is a term popularized by sociologist, Erving Goffman, pertaining to the study of mechanisms of man’s social interactions by means of communication and â€Å"face-to face† encounters. Dramaturgy emphasizes the creation or projection of â€Å"roles† attempting to be congruent and accepted in the norms of society where a particular man or â€Å"actor† belongs in order to avoid ostracism and harmful discrimination of the majority group at their backs (an example of backstage behavior). It also functions for man to rehearse and practice one’s ideal goals for the purpose of portraying those roles into the â€Å"stage† or real world (frontstage behavior), and to be viewed by perceived viewers or onlookers (audience). The dramaturgy or dramaturgical perspective can be best understood by showing an example in some personal and professional situations. For instance, in a particular scenario, a play, an act or a drama occurs; perhaps, a person encountering an acquaintance or friend, may be â€Å"forced† in the situation to greet the person coming nearby and may therefore reveal a phony or a fake smile in order for the other person not to think negatively about the person who is expected to greet. The second person on the other hand, would and might as well return the greetings back because of the perceived â€Å"rightness† of the act as implied by the social norms and equity rules. Moreover, these two different persons may perform and engage in a talk and communicate through non-verbal gestures and of course, verbal language; these persons then, may use or show a facial mask or a facade we call in psychology, the â€Å"persona†. In a professional situation however, a good example may be the HR interviewer and the applicant (interviewee): both would have to perform their assigned and implied roles as for the HR interviewer, has to appear intimidating, serious, and straightforward with less smiles, and for the applicant’s part, one has to act as the confident but not so arrogant and aggressive projected image to impress the interviewer and has to act that one knows what one is doing and the position applying for (Sannicolas, 1997). Conclusion Further, it is concluded that the theory of dramaturgy explains the tendency of people to project rehearsed roles for the purpose of perfecting their interpersonal social skills. Sincere or not, obsequious or assertive, man’s mechanism is explained as such dominated by those internal ideal roles that is projected and performed outwards by persons in social situations (Sannicolas, 1997). References Sannicolas, N. (1997). Erving Goffman, dramaturgy, and on-line relationships. Retrieved October 31, 2008, from, http://www. dinicola. it/sit/Cybersoc%20Issue%201%20-%20Erving%20Goffman,Dramaturgy,and%20On-Line%20Relationships. htm

Strategy plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Strategy plan - Essay Example Rise Art is created by two close friends and it is inspired by the desire of art and knowledge. Rise Art assists artists to support and expand their functions in creative aspects. The organisation provides an online platform which can simplify the discovery of art to be easy and enjoyable. The art works which are traded by Rise Art are handmade and developed by the team. The organisation performs in conjecture with graduate degree programs in universities, schools, colleges, art galleries and museums in order to provide the customers with an access to incredible level of art (Rise Art Ltd, 2013). Research and Situation Creative industry plays a vital part in the growth of economy. It drives innovation, sustainability and prosperity of a nation. This creativity arrives from several sources namely arts, design, fashion, music and dance among others. The worth of creative industry is not purely practical in nature rather it communicates cultural value and social position of a nation. Si nce different people possess diverse imaginations and gifts, their creations are believed to have certain sensitive value. In the 21st century, these creativities such as designing, decorating or painting started to intertwine together with a range of modern business activities (Crown, 2011). In the UK, creative industry has contributed about ?36.3 billion Gross Value Added (GVA), signifying about 2.89% of total GVA in the year 2009. Among different segments of creative industry, publishing, advertising and television & radio provided the most support to the GVA of the UK. The creative industry also exported different services worth ?8.9 billion in 2009. This figure signifies the implication of creative industry in the UK (Crown, 2011). In the year 2011, there were about 106,700 creative organisations representing 5.1% of entire UK’s organisations. From 2009 to 2011, small growth was observed in the number of creative enterprises. Among other segments, music, visual and arts segments have replicated the utmost number of organisations in creative industry i.e. 1.5% of entire UK’s organisations. Apart from this, advertising, architecture, design and film organisations also represent considerable number of organisations in the UK (Crown, 2011). SWOT Analysis Before developing any communication strategy, it is essential to understand the key strengths and weaknesses of an organisation. Following is the SWOT analysis of Rise Art which would be helpful for developing communication strategy. Strengths Weaknesses Strong market of art Niche customer segment Online interactions Alignment with campuses, art galleries and museums Limited opportunity to make revenue Weak presence in online media Low brand reputation Opportunities Threats Involve the young consumer segment Drive promotional campaign to enhance fan and supporter base Use different public relations (PR) techniques to enhance brand image Competition from other art organisations Evolution in art c an generate confusion for requisite spread of messages Economic condition can reduce the spending of customers of art related products Goals and Objectives The key objectives of the communication plan are: To develop strategies for introducing Rise Art as one of the leading art organisations in creative industry of the UK To drive more traffic to the website developed by Rise Art by involving young customer segment To successfully implement PR strategy in order to enhance brand

Unit 3 Discussion Big Ideas in Science Research Paper

Unit 3 Discussion Big Ideas in Science - Research Paper Example So the sooner one reveals a theory the more time it gives to the world to explore it. 2. Skepticism can be faced by presenting facts and reasoning understood by the scientist. It would be ideal to detail the process of the whole theory the idea behind it and the reason why it occurred. Any theory needs to have a solid scientific reasoning to be approved. According to (Oskin,2013) â€Å"Wegeners theory of continental drift was soundly denounced by geologists. Part of the opposition was because Wegener didnt have a good model to explain how the continents moved back and forth†.It is necessary for the theorist to prove that the previous theory was wrong and reason for it. The scientific detailing of a theory can avoid the scientist being labeled a crack pot. 3. The best way to explain the continental drift is by analyzing the plate tectonics with GPS. GPS is Global Positioning System which works with the help of satellite devices. According to (Garmin ,1996) â€Å"The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system made up of a network of 24 satellites placed into orbit by the U.S. Department of Defense†. It shows that the earth’s plates are floating on the surface and it makes it clear that they are moving all the time. Event the devices that project 3D image of seismic activity is important for supporting Wegner’s theory. One of the evidence which can be shows is the presence of Negroid races in many parts of continents. It can be seen that there is Negroid races in India and other Asian countries and even the topography and vegetation is somewhat similar. The wild life and aquatic animals remain somewhat similar and this can be because the animals shared a common ancestor and had few changes due to evolution. The evidence can be collected by visiting some parts of continents and showcasing its inhabitants and geographical nature. Patrick is quiet right that Wegner has not revealed the theory too soon

A study into enforcement mechanisms in transboundary water treaties Essay

A study into enforcement mechanisms in transboundary water treaties - Essay Example Transboundary water resources provide for water for human consumption, agriculture, power generation and industry. In addition, transboundary water bodies sustain ecosystems that enrich humans and provide natural channels for navigation and the carriage of goods. Thus, proper management and utilisation of transboundary water resources requires broad cooperation amongst States sharing these natural resources and agreements relating to such arrangements must allow for monitoring, dispute resolution and enforcement. Without proper enforcement mechanisms, conflict is likely and this can be very costly for all concerned. This dissertation presents a discussion about enforcement mechanisms that are available in international law for global treaties for management of transboundary water bodies and basin practices that assist with sustainable management of such freshwater bodies. I certify that, except where cited in the text, this work is the result of research carried out by the author of this study. The main content of the study which has been presented contains work that has not previously been reported anywhere. Water is important for all humanity because the role played by water in the natural world is very fundamental (Varis, 2008, Pp. 1 – 2). Water circulates in the atmosphere, rivers, lakes, the soil and rocks carrying chemical substances and energy to support the ecosystems of the world. Billions of people around the world depend on freshwater systems for their water needs. Because water is essential for human existence, access to water is one of the most complicated challenges faced by humanity today. Rivers and lakes are the main sources for freshwater for people around the world, but substantial rivers and lakes are often not located within a single political boundary. A rapidly increasing global population has presented a dramatic increase in the number of users of the hydrological

Soft Skills employers look for Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Soft Skills employers look for - Essay Example Although I am confident I can work alone, I also know that I can be an asset to a team. I am capable of collaborating with other people to achieve a common goal. I also get along well with people so there will be no problems associating with the other team members. I have a positive attitude and I believe this can also help in motivating the team to feel good about the task we are working on. #3 – Attitude. I consider this the least of my strengths because I do not let this influence my performance at work. Nevertheless, I think of my attitude as a strength because at times it challenges me. For example, if I am having a bad day, I resist the temptation to give in and be short with everyone around me. I can easily blame my bad behavior to just being in a bad mood but I do not. Instead, I try and keep a professional attitude. This practice helps me accomplish my tasks at work. Moreover, it shows my colleagues that I am mature enough to limit how my attitude affects my performance and relationship with them. For my presentation skills, communication skills and leadership skills, I indeed have plans of developing myself in these areas. The most immediate one I would like to work on are my communication skills. I think being adept in communicating with people will help me advance in my studies, and consequently in the work environment. Right now, I believe I still need to improve my writing skills. Even though I can express myself well in spoken English, I still find it difficult to elaborate on my ideas when I do it on paper. In my opinion, a person can only be a fluent speaker if the individual is able to not only speak but write well. â€Å"Effective communication skills are the most basic building block when it comes to making sure things move forward.† (Noone, 2011) It is my belief that to be a productive employee or employer one should have sufficient communication skills to enable social and work interaction. This is

Screening report on 400 blows Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Screening report on 400 blows - Essay Example The story of this movie revolves around a young boy who is considered to be a trouble maker. This child is deprived of love from his parent and is constantly being shouted at by his parents, especially his mother. This movie is a semi – autobiography of the life of the director and his friend. The style of shooting of the film displays the style of Truffaut. In this movie he had displayed very clearly the life of a young prankster. This movie apart from being about Antoine alone also highlights how the French ill – treated the injustice by the young at that time. There is a great portrayal of the how Antoine has been punished and criticized at both home and in school at every step. The poor child is punished all the time in school while his mother on the other end is strict and very demanding for him to help with the choirs at home. Also the child faces a lot of discomfort since his family is very insecure financially, live in an extremely small apartment, with him having to sleep on a sleeping bag. Also his mother has a number of issues and agreements with his step father. He also realizes that his mum is having an affair with her co – worker. He takes this to himself and engages in childish mischief, until he and his friend are turned in to the police by h is step father, for stealing the type writer from his office. The film ends with the child being sent to a work camp (on request of his mother) by the sea line. The child is also sent to a psychiatrist as his parents deem him to be very mischievous and incurable. The director has been able to provide the movie with an excellent ending, where Antoine runs away from the work camp and is seen at the sea shore. The use of the camera is excellent as the movies ends with the cameras zooming into his face and to a great extent it seems like he is gazing into the faces of the audience. This seems to be the strongest point of the movie. The director has been able to rightly depict the look in his eyes. A

Coming of Age on the New Jersey Shore Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Coming of Age on the New Jersey Shore - Essay Example As the years passed, I became more aware of New York City just an hour away. Here was the greatest mix of diversity in the world, yet strangely troubled by a melting pot that was boiling over. I was safe in my small white-collar bedroom community, so close and yet so far away. I was dismayed that the life of security I led was taken for granted, while people on my doorstep were struggling with the issues of crime, drugs, and alienation. I became ever more interested in trying to find a way to help the world politically, economically, and socially. When 9/11 shook the planet it also rocked my world of safety and security. As I thought about the people who died in an attempt just to lead their daily lives, it drew me out of my complacency. The bravery of the rescue workers that lost their lives to save others would not be lost on me. Certainly there was something I could do with my future that could help prevent this tragedy from ever happening again. My experience with athletics had taught me that it aint over until its over. For me, my dedication to improving the conditions of the world around me had just begun. My parents instilled in me a sense of duty to the world around me. They would fulfill their duty to the world by their attention to charity and volunteer work. It was always just accepted that you would do something for the good of your community or mankind. It was this commitment to citizenship that urged me to seek a career where I could be of a benefit to the rest of the planet. Â  

Motivation Essay Essay Example for Free

Motivation Essay Essay Civil Engineering is my passion and a very important part of my life. From the very beginning of my school life I was intrigued in various types of structures and its complication from engineering side. In time this desire was growing and I start being interested in construction processes and especially in different structural solutions. My mind was overfilled with questions such as how process of construction design runs, what are the reasons why some of structures sustain more loads while other ones collapse affected with lower loads. So I dedicated my post-secondary education to search the answers which allows me to understand how the engineering science works. And I made the right decision by choosing Civil Engineering studies. It was a key which unlocked the right doors to get the answers that I needed. During my Bachelor studies I was interested in design branch and especially in Structural Design. It has admired me because of its complication and oneness. None of the other sphere requires such a wide range of knowledge and none of them is as universal engineering specialization as the Structural Design is. Furthermore, Structural Design studies in TU/e provide the possibility to do research project what is a chance to explore and gain understanding in the structural design of structures and the aspects of the design process. Due to these reasons I would like to take the Architecture, Building and Planning programme because one of its specializations is Structural Design. After taking decision that it is time to continue my education I started exploration of Western Europe universities and I found out that TU/e is the best option to fulfill my needs. TU/e is a great choice because of its objective to grow up creative, initiative and independent thinking experts. Furthermore, this university cooperates with international companies and universities and can offer many MSc programm es in English what demonstrates that TU/e is oriented towards exchanging international knowledge and experience. The other aspect I chose TU/e is its worldwide reputation and ranking among world’s top technical universities. This fact enthuse me and it would be such an honour to study in one of the best Technical universities in the world and get lots of knowledge from authoritative and meritorious professors. Furthermore, TU/e is well known because of its research institutes and that students are taking responsibility of impressive projects. Young engineers have a chance to express their creativity and innovation. I believe that opportunity to  participate in educational life of such an outstanding university is an ambition of all engineers. In conclusion, the facts such as great rankings among the world’s best technical universities, high level professors and leading position in research inspired me to take MSc programme in TU/e. I have no doubts I made the right decision. The master’s studies of chosen programme are the best way to seek the goals of my career. I believe in it due to the circumstance that there are a lot of educated but not enough experienced engineers in Lithuania. So only the best of them are able to compete for the most sought-after and perspective positions. Whereas I am ambitious person I want to become one of the most professional, desirable and promising engineer for engineering companies. So I would like to continue purposeful studies and to advance knowledge of my previous degree what could help me to perform in more professional way. Considering my personal features such as a strong will to learn and activity on taking participation in diverse educational projects I daresay that I will be adorable student for your university and your professors. Furthermore, I believe that I and these master’s studies we are great match due to the feature of my character that I cannot face up with myself when I have unsolved problems and the attribute of these studies to be challenging. This feature of my character shows that I will be persistent and committed student. With a foundation of academic knowledge and experience I gained during the years of my bachelor studies, I believe I am qualified for the Master’s degree of Architecture, Building and Planning, specialization Structural Engineering. I am convinced that TU/e will provide me with knowledge, experience and confidence for the future. I think that this programme matches perfectly with my academic expectations and offers the best way to make my goals come true.

Impact of the Islamic Invasion on Spain

Impact of the Islamic Invasion on Spain The history of Spain reflects the effect of certain cultures and religions on Spanish population, language, traditions and style of life. In the Middle Ages (about 411 AD) Spain was occupied by the German tribes and further the country was conquered by the Visigoths (416 AD) (Collins, 1995). However, the aim of this essay is to analyse the impact of the Islamic invasion on Spain, as the Muslims has had a considerable effect on the country up to the present day. In 711-714 the Umayyad dynasty seized the Spanish area near Cordoba (Rahman, 1989); forty years later Abd al-Rahman I created an Umayyad Emirate. But it was in the tenth century under the ruling of Abd al-Rahman III (912-961) that the Muslims managed to intensify Spains prosperity and wealth (Goodwin, 1990). Abdal-Rahman III united some areas of al-Andalus and improved military, tax and law systems. In the eleventh century the Emirate was divided into several kingdoms with unique cultures and traditions. After the decay of the Umayyad dynasty, other Islamic dynasties took control over Spain, such as the Almoravides, the Almohades and the Nasrids (Taha, 1989). At the end of the fifteenth century the Christian rulers seized the power in Granada and put an end to the Muslim ruling. Other Spanish places, such as Seville and Cordoba, were liberated from the Muslims by Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile in the thirteenth century. But the Islamic influence has preserved in Spain till nowadays, though Isabella made everything to destroy Islam and eradicate any traces of the Muslims. The Islamic invasion positively affected many areas of life in Spain, such as culture, education, religion, economics, science, society and family. Al-Andalus, as the Muslims called Spain, had acquired the central position among other civilizations of the ancient world since the conquest of Cordoba by the Umayyad dynasty (Chejne, 1974). In particular, the Muslims created about two thousand public baths and mosques for different social groups and implemented some schools for poor children in Cordoba. Although some Spanish regions opposed the Muslim ruling, industry and trade were considerably advanced by the Umayyads (Harvey, 1990). Spanish libraries contained more than 400,000 books and the streets of Cordoba were illuminated, unlike such European capitals as Paris and London. As Hillenbrand (1999) puts it, Cordobain its prime had no peer in Europe for the amenities of civilized life. Its houses were bountifully supplied with hot and cold running water, its streets were lit at night (p.175). Different religious groups, such as Christians, Muslims and Jews, successfully interacted with each other. According to Ghazanfar (2004), there existed no separation between science, wisdom, and faith; nor was East separated from the West, nor the Muslim from the Jew or the Christian (p.2). Such religious tolerance can be explained by the fact that the Muslims did not act as oppressors, but, instead, they tried to improve the living conditions of all social classes in Spain. As a result, Christians and Jews occupied the leading positions during the Muslim ruling (Hopfe, 1998). This peaceful co-existence of three religions had continued till the fifteenth century (Thomson, 1989), contributing to many aspects of life in Spain. For instance, in the eleventh century Arabic language was utilised in Spanish science and literature, while Spaniards began to learn the Muslims language to acquaint with Arabic writings (Shubert, 1992). Some Christians and Jews borrowed Arabic culture and religion, gradually transforming into Mozarabs, people who were Arabized (Watt, 1965). Many illiterate Spanish people learned to read and write, calculate and navigate (Houston, 1964). As the Muslims preserved some Roman and Greek literary works, Spanish Christians served as translators for these crucial manuscripts. Architecture, philosophy, mathematics and other sciences also prospered under the ruling of the Umayyad dynasty due to their belief in Allah and the laws of the Quran, the holy book of the Muslims that accentuated the power of knowledge (Fakhry, 1983). As the Muslims made attempts to understand God, they also tried to uncover the truth about human nature by conducting different researches and scientific investigations (Saud, 1994). For instance, the Muslims substituted the Roman number system existed in Spain for the Arabic number system that has been widely utilised in algebra, arithmetic and business since then. In addition, astronomy, medicine, biology and chemistry began to thrive in Spain after the Islamic invasion (Lewis, 1993). Among the most famous Spanish philosophers, writers, artists and scientists of the Muslim era are Al-Kwarizmi, Ibn Rushd, Ibn Zuhr, Al-Razi and Ibn Sina (Chejne, 1974). Ibn Sinas medical treatise Al-Qanun had been studied in many European educational establishments for about three hundred years and had been regarded as one of the best medical works (Vernet, 1992). One of the greatest Muslim scholars of Spain was Abu Zakariyah al-Awwam Ishibili who created a procedure of grafting and gave names to more than five hundred plants (Ghazanfar, 2004). Pedro Alfonzo, a Spanish Muslim scholar who was interested in astronomy, claimed that his wish was to raise once more to life the knowledge of that science which is in such a deplorable state among those educated in the Latin manner (Hermes, 1977, p.72). Due to such an advanced stage of scientific development, many European scientists arrived to Spain to receive knowledge in various sciences and to interpret Latin texts. In regard to economics, the Muslims created the silk industry in Al-Andalus, gradually transforming Spain into one of the largest countries for silk production. The country was also engaged in the production of satin, cotton, pepper, furs, clocks, paper, maps and soaps. Further Spain contributed to the fine fabrics manufacturing in Europe. Agriculture was poorly developed in Spain becau se of a primordial irrigation system (White, 1970; Semple, 1971); but the Muslims substituted this old system for a new improved irrigation method that resulted in the prosperity of orchards and the increase of rice crops in such areas as Granada and the Valenican huerta (Dickie, 1968). The Muslims utilised the method of Syrianization to improve agriculture of Spanish towns, especially Valencia and Seville (Burns, 1973). The new system allowed Spaniards to intensify crops with the help of artificial water supply (Smith, 1966, p.442). Up to the present day this irrigation system has been controlled by an old Muslim tribunal (Tribunal of the Waters); today this Tribunal is held once a week and is aimed at solving disputable agricultural issues. Due to these improvements, Spanish people began to cultivate various plants and trees, such as oranges, lemons, artichokes, apricots, olive and implemented an advanced system of nature protection (Imamuddin, 1965, p.84). Before the Islamic invasion, Spanish grew winter crops, but the Muslims managed to implement Indian crops that were grown in a frost-free season. As a result, many Arabic words were introduced in Spanish language to reflect different aspects of the irrigation system; for instance, alberca-al-birka means a pool and acequia-al-saqiya means an irrigation ditch. Nowadays some flowers bear the Arabic names, such asbellota-balluta for acorn, alazor-al-asfur for safflower and al-fasfasa foralfalfa. Other words reflect the impact of the Muslims on farming: tahona-tahuna (flour-mill), aldea-al-days (village), and rabadan-rabb al-dan (head-shepherd). As the Muslims were obsessed with nature, they utilised their artistic skills to create splendid gardens and buildings that have attracted attention of people till nowadays (Blair Bloom, 1994). Such unusual places as the Alhambra of Granda, the Mosque of Cordoba and the Alcazar of Seville are the visual legacy of the Muslims in Spain (Barrucand Bednorz,1992; Ettinghausen Grabar, 1987). These splendid architectural buildings clearly reveal the Muslims innovations in the fields of architectural design and style(King, 1978; Grabar, 1978; Rodriguez, 1992). Unfortunately, almost all Islamic architectural monuments were destroyed at the end of the fifteenth century; only the Alhambra remained undamaged (Fletcher, 1987). Many famous writers and artists depicted the Alhambra in their works (Ching, 1979). For instance, Washington Irving created  Tales of the Alhambra  when he visited this place in Spain. Despite the destruction of many Islamic buildings (Barrucand Bednorz, 1992), a new Islamic mosque for Spanish Muslims hasbeen recently built in Granada as a result of Islam renewal in 1989. The Muslims are able to pray in the mosque and receive education in such sciences as medicine and law. Today the number of the Muslims in Spain approaches to onemillion people who strongly defend their rights and their faith. Some Spanish Muslims continue to live in the Albaican quarter in Granada, where the Muslims lived in the 10-15 centuries. However, the tensions between Spanish Muslims and Spanish Christians are rather complicated, although Spa nish government realises that it is crucial to improve the relations between these two religious groups. Analysing the impact of the Islamic invasion on the history of Spain, the essay suggests that the Muslims considerably affected such areas of Spanish life as economics, culture, science, architecture, art and religion. They managed to improve the countrys agriculture and manufacturing, contributing to its prosperity and wealth; they implemented many advanced systems based on scientific findings, especially Arabic number system of calculation, the illumination system and the irrigation method. The Muslims transferred their knowledge in medicine, algebra, chemistry, astronomy, architecture, art, nature and technology to Spanish people who further imparted these valuable data to other European countries. Thus, the Islamic invasion on Spain paved the way for the period of Renaissance in Europe; as Ghazanfar (2004) puts it, Muslims not only occupied Spain but planted the roots of European Renaissance through unparalleled transfer of knowledge in almost every field known (p.11). Today the Islamic influence is especially obvious in many Spanish words that reflect the Arabic roots, as well as in architectural monuments, literature, sciences, legal laws and cultural traditions. Although Islam was officially renewed in Spain at the end of the twentieth century, the Muslims continue to experience serious racial prejudices from the side of Spanish Christians.

Optical Fiber Sensors and Conventional Sensors

Optical Fiber Sensors and Conventional Sensors ABSTRACT This study deals with the comparison of the two types of sensors which are widely used in civil engineering, namely, conventional sensors and optical fiber sensors. Temperature and displacement are the two principal parameters which are measured with the aid of Fiber optic sensors. Bragg Grating, Interferometric, Intensity Sensors, and optical time domain reflectometry (OTDR) are some of the techniques which are used for sensing. In this study, various case studies have been undertaken and have been analyzed. With the aid of these case studies, a detailed analysis and comparison of the sensors is carried out. Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION In the last two decades, the world has witnessed a revolution in the sectors of optoelectronics and fiber optic communications. Various products such as laser printers and bar code scanners which have become a part of our daily usage, are a result of this technical revolution only. The reasons for the phenomenal growth of the fiber optics are many. The most conspicuous reason being the ability of the fiber optics to provide high performance and highly reliable communication links and that too at a very low bandwidth cost. As we see that optoelectronic and fiber communications industry has progressed a lot, and along with these industries fiber optic sensors have also benefited a lot from these developments. Due to the mass production in these industries, availability of fiber optic sensors at a low cost has been made possible in recent years. With their availability at affordable costs, fiber optic sensors have been able to enter the domain which was otherwise being ruled by the trad itional sensors. In recent years, the demand for the development of new materials to strengthen, upgrade and retrofit existing aged and deteriorated concrete structures has increased rapidly. The continuing deterioration and functional deficiency of existing civil infrastructure elements represents one of the most significance challenges facing the worlds construction and civil engineers. Deficiencies in existing concrete structures caused by initial flawed design due to insufficient detailing at the time of construction, aggressive chemical attacks and ageing of structural elements enhance an urgent need of finding an effective means to improve the performance of these structures without additionally increasing the overall weight, maintenance cost and time. In the last 50 years, a large number of civil concrete structures have been built; many of these structures, particularly in off-shore regions have now deteriorated and require repair in a short period of time. Moreover, the increase of traffic volume and population in many developing countries is causing the demand to upgrade existing concrete structures to increase. The damage of reinforced concrete (RC) structures through reinforcement corrosion and residual capacity are the most important issues that concern engineers. These problems occur not only in constructed concrete structures but also in structures strengthened by externally bonded steel reinforcements. In the past, the external steel plate bonding method has been used to improve strength in the tensile region of concrete structures with an epoxy adhesive and has proved to be successful over a period of 20 years. However, the use of steel reinforced plates and bars has its disadvantages including high corrosion rates, which could adversely affect the bond strength and cause surface spalling of the concrete, due to volumetric change in the corroded steel reinforcements. Since the early 1980s, fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) materials have been used as a replacement for conventional steel materials for concrete strengthening applications. In recent years, the interest in utilizing FRP materials in the civil concrete industry in forms of rods, plates, grid and jacket has grown increasingly. When an FRP plate with high tensile strength properties bonds on the concrete surface, it can strengthen the structure with minimum changes to its weight and dimensions. FRP offers substantial improvement in solving many practical problems that conventional materials cannot solve to provide a satisfactory service life of the structure. Unlike the conventional steel materials, FRP is corrosion resistant. The beneficial characteristics of using the FRP in concrete construction include its high strength-to-weight ratio, low labour requirement, ease of application, reduced traffic interruption during repair, cost reductions in both transportation and in situ maintenance for a long-term strategy. Its high damping characteristic also attracts more structural engineers to use these materials for seismic retrofitting. Due to the increasing use of FRP-plate bonding techniques in strengthening civil concrete structures, the interest in finding a suitable means of monitoring the structural health conditions of these strengthened structures has therefore increased substantially. Since strengthened structures are covered by the FRP plates, the mechani cal properties of the concrete may not be measured or detected easily through conventional nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods, such as strain measurements using surface mounted strain gauges or extensometers, radiography, thermography and acoustic emission methods, particularly in areas with microcracks and debonds underneath the externally-bonded plate. Besides, these structural inspection technologies, in certain cases, require special surface preparations or a high degree of flatness in the concrete surface. These requirements may be hard to achieve, particularly for an area that is exposed to a harsh environment. During the 1990s, a multi-disciplinary field of engineering known as ‘Smart Structures has developed as one of the most important research topics in the field.The structure is formed by a marriage of engineering materials with structurally-integrated sensor systems. The system is capable of assessing damage and warning of impending weakness in the structural integrity of the structure. Fibre-optic sensor technology is a most attractive device currently used in the aerospace and aircraft industry for on-line monitoring of large-scale FRP structures. The development of distributed fibreoptic sensors, which provides information on a large number of continuously distribution parameters such as strain and temperature is of great interest in most engineering applications.11,12 The sensors are embedded into a structure to form a novel self-strainmonitoring system, i.e. the system can self-detect its health status and send response signals to operators during any marginal situation during service. The embedding sensor, due to its extremely small physical size, can provide the information to a high accuracy and resolution without influencing the dimension and mechanical properties of the structure. Fibre-optic sensors present a number of advantages over the conventional strain measuring devices: (a) providing an absolute measurement that is sensitive to fluctuation in irradiance of the illuminating source; (b) enabling the measurement of the strain in different locations in only one single optical fibre by using multiplexing techniques;(c) having a low manufacturing cost for mass production; and (d) its ability to be embedded inside a structure without influencing the mechanical properties of the host material. A new development of ‘Smart materials and structures was driven by a strong demand for high performance over recent years. A system integrated into structures and being able to monitor its hosts physical and mechanical properties such as temperature and strain, during service is appreciated as a ‘Smart structural health monitoring system. The term smart material and structure is widely used to describe the unique marriage of material and structural engineering by using fibre-optic sensors and actuation control technology. The smart structure is constructed of materials that can continuously monitor their own mechanical and physical properties, and thereby, be capable of assessing damage and warning of impending weakness in structural integrity. This design concept results in improved safety and economic concerns regarding the weight saving and avoidance of over-designing of the structure in the long run. In Fig. 1, a schematic illustration of the structures possibilities created by the confluence of the four disciplines is shown. In the figure, a structure invested with actuating, sensing and neutral networking systems to form a new class of adaptive structures is shown. A structure with integrated sensor or actuator systems i s able to provide a self-structural health monitoring or actuating response, respectively. If both systems are integrated together into a structure, the sensor and actuators can act as nervous and muscular systems, like a human body, to sense the conditions such as mechanical strain and temperature of the structure (a smart structure) and to provide control of such changes of stiffness, shape and vibration mode (a controlled structure). The combination of these two systems into one structure is called a ‘Smart adaptive structure. This structure with a built-in neural networking system, like a brain, is then able to self evaluate the conditions, which are based on changes of structural parameters, thermal conditions and ambient environments to give an appropriate mechanical adjustment. This structure is commonly called an ‘Intelligent adaptive structure. 1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY There has been an unprecedented development in the fields of optoelectronics and fiber optic communications. This in turn, has brought about a revolution in the sectors of telecommunication and various other industries. This has been made possible with the aid of high performance and reliable telecommunication links which have low bandwidth cost. Optical fibers have numerous advantages and some disadvantages. The advantages include their small size, resistance to electromagnetic interference and high sensitivity. On the other hand, some of its disadvantages are their high cost and unfamiliarity to the end user. But its great advantages completely overshadow its minor disadvantages. So, in this study an attempt is being made to compare the modern age fiber optic sensors with the conventional sensors. Also, with the aid of the case studies, the impact of fiber optic sensor technology on monitoring of civil structures is studied (McKinley and Boswell 2002). 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT In the past various kinds of sensors have been used in civil engineering for measuring temperature, pressure, stress, strain etc. And as the optical fiber sensors spread their wings, the civil engineering is bound to gain a lot from these modern sensors. Presently, there exist a number of problems with the existing civil infrastructures. These civil infrastructures such as bridges etc. have a pretty long service period which may amount to several decades or maybe even hundred years. Thus, during this time period, these structures suffer from corrosion, fatigue and extreme loading. Since concrete is used mostly in these civil infrastructures, it degradation is a major issue all over the world. The amount of degradation and the time when the degradation starts depends on various factors and is inevitable and unavoidable. Thus, in order to keep these civil structures in good condition, it becomes necessary that their condition be monitored and adequate steps be taken. Thus, we need sensors which can monitor these structures throughout the life of these structures. Thus, in this study the impact of fiber optic sensors is studied on civil structures. 1.3 OBJECTIVES There are a few objectives that are planned to be achieved at the end of this project, these are: A general discussion on the present state of structural monitoring and the need of fiber optic sensors in this field A general study on Comparison between Conventional Sensors and Optical Fiber Sensors Review of Case Studies on Fiber Optic Sensors application in Civil Engineering Structures 1.4 WORK PLAN Discussion, reading and observation Problem identification through reading, discussion and observation of the area studied Understand and identify the background of problem Studying feasibility and needs to carry out the investigation Identification of the Title for the project Identify the aim, objective and scope of the project Literature Review Understanding the background of the problem Understanding the history of the sensor technology in structural monitoring Carrying out literature survey on generic technologies of sensors for concrete structures Identify the types of sensor involved in monitoring the structural in civil engineering Identify the technique used and the working principle for each type of sensors (in particular optical fiber sensors) Case Study Choose the relevant and related case study for discussion Describe important aspects of case study Analyze the use of sensors in the case study Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendations Discuss the similarities and differences Discuss the technical facets of sensor application Draw the overall conclusion for this project Give some recommendation for future Chapter 2: APPLICATIONS These days the fiber optic sensors are being used for a variety of applications, the most prominent of them being: Measurement of rotation and acceleration of bodies Measurement of electric and magnetic fields Measurement of temperature and pressure of bodies Measurement of acoustics and vibrations of various bodies Measurement of strain, viscosity and chemical properties of materials Measurement of surface condition and tactile sensing Measurement of sound , speed and proximity of bodies Determination of color and weight of different objects Measurement of linear and angular positions and this is widely utilized in civil engineering structures 2.1 ADVANTAGES OF FIBER OPTIC SENSORS Like with any other technology, there are both advantages and disadvantages using fiber optic sensors. The prominent advantages being: Fiber optic sensors are lightweight and this is of great importance in case of engineered structures Fiber optic sensors are of smaller size as compared to the traditional sensors Also, fiber optic sensors consume less power as compared to the traditional sensors Along with this, these sensors show high resistance to electromagnetic interference as compared to the traditional sensors On top of this, fiber optic sensors have enjoy high bandwidth and high sensitivity as compared to their traditional counterparts Fiber optic sensors are usually embedded in objects and due to this, these sensors can gain access to areas which till date remain inaccessible with the aid of traditional sensors Also, these sensors are accurate over a greater dynamic range as compared to the traditional sensors Fiber optic sensors are also capable of being multiplexed which again is a further advantage over their traditional counterparts Also, fiber optic sensors are capable of distributed measurements which gives them an edge over and above the traditional sensors Last but not the least, they also show greater environmental ruggedness as compared to the traditional sensors 2.2 DISADVANTAGES OF FIBER OPTIC SENSORS But all this is just one side of the coin. Though on seeing these advantages, it might appear that fiber optic sensors are way too advanced as compared to the traditional ones, but it is not exactly true. These fiber optic sensors also have some disadvantages due to which their advancement in todays world has been somewhat curtailed. The major disadvantages of fiber optic sensors are: Fiber optic sensors are quite costly as compared to the traditional sensors. Due to this, many people still consider traditional sensors to be a better option in cases where cost is a major consideration. Secondly, these sensors have come into prominence only in the last two decades. Due to this, people appear to be somewhat less educated regarding their usage and operations. And this unfamiliarity with the usage of these sensors, has proved to be a major hurdle in being able to capture the whole market. Also, these sensors are considered to be more fragile as compared to the traditional sensors which raises a question over their adaptability in extreme conditions Also with the fiber optic sensors there exists the inherit ingress/egress difficulty Fiber optic sensors usually have a non-linear output which is a cause for concern in some applications From the above discussion, we can see that as is the case with any other new technology, there are both merits and demerits of fiber optic sensors. But, what is worth considering here is that the advantages of this technology are much more than its disadvantages and are able to outweigh them. Also, from the demerits which are mentioned here, it is clear that these demerits are bound to wither away as this technology develops and gains more prominence. 2.3 APPLICATIONS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING Now we come to the discussion of the need and applications of the fiber optic sensors in the field of civil engineering structures. The monitoring of civil structures has a great significance in todays world. Today, we not only need to construct reliable and strong civil structures, but we also need to monitor these structures in order to ensure their proper functioning and their safety. Also, with the aid of the monitoring of various parameters of the structures, we can get knowledge about state of the building and by using this data, we can in turn plan the maintenance schedule for the structure (Mckinley, 2000). Also, this data can give us an insight into the real behavior of the structure and can thus take make important decisions regarding the optimization of similar structures which are to b e constructed in future. The maintenance of the structures can be approached in one of the two ways, namely: Material point of view- In this approach, monitoring is concentrated on local properties of the materials which are used in the construction. In this approach, we observe the behavior of the construction materials under the conditions of load, temperature etc. In this approach, short base length sensors are usually utilized. Also, it is possible to get the information about the whole structure with the aid of extrapolation of the data obtained from these sensors. Structural point of view- In this approach of measurement, the structure is viewed from a geometrical point of view. In this approach, long gauge length sensors appear to be the ideal choice. In this approach, we will be able to detect material degradation only if this material degradation has an impact on the form of the structure. In the recent years most of the research work which has been carried out in field of optic sensors has been in the field of material monitoring rather than structural monitoring. It is also worth mentioning here that, more sensors are required in the case of material monitoring as compared to structural monitoring. We know that civil engineering requires sensors that can be embedded in the concrete, mortars, steel, rocks, soil, road pavements etc. and can measure various parameters reliably. Also what should be taken into account is that these sensors should be easy to install and should not hamper the construction work or the properties of the structure in any derogatory manner. Also, it is common knowledge that at the sites of civil engineering, there exist the unavoidable conditions of dust, pollution, electromagnetic disturbances and of unskilled labor. Thus, the sensors to be used in these cases need to be rugged, should be inert to harsh environment conditions and should be easy to install and their installation could be carried out by unskilled labor. Along with all these things, it is imperative that these sensors are able to survive a period of at least ten years so that they can allow for a constant monitoring of the aging of the structure. Thus, we see that the fiber optic sensors ca n prove to be quite handful in civil engineering applications and structures. In the past various kinds of sensors have been used in civil engineering for measuring temperature, pressure, stress, strain etc. And as the optical fiber sensors spread their wings, the civil engineering is bound to gain a lot from these modern sensors (Vurpillot et al., 1998). Chapter 3: LITERATURE REVIEW ON FIBER OPTIC SENSORS Fiber optic sensors are of many kinds, but they can be broadly classified into two types, namely, extrinsic fiber optic sensors and intrinsic fiber optic sensors. There is a great deal of difference between these two types of fiber optic sensors and this difference is discussed in detail below. 3.1 EXTRINSIC FIBER OPTIC SENSORS This type of fiber optic sensor is also known as hybrid fiber optic sensor. As we can see in the figure above that there is a black box and an input fiber enters into this black box. And from this input fiber, information is impressed upon light beam. There can be various ways by which the information can be impressed upon. Usually this information is impressed upon the light beam in terms of frequency or polarization. This light which then posses the information is carried away by the optical fiber. The optical fiber now goes to an electronic processor. (Vurpillot et al., 1998) Here, in the electronic processor the information which is brought along by the fiber is processed. Though we can have separate input fiber and output fiber, but in some cases it is preferred to have the same fiber as the input fiber and the output fiber. 3.2 INTRINSIC FIBER OPTIC SENSORS The other type of optic fiber sensors is the intrinsic fiber sensors. An example of an intrinsic fiber sensor is shown in the figure below. The working of the intrinsic fiber sensors is somewhat different from the working of the extrinsic fiber sensors. In the intrinsic fiber sensors, the light beam is modulated and we rely on this modulation in the fiber in order to carry out the measurement. In the figure above, we can see an intrinsic fiber sensor or what is also known as all fiber sensor. 3.3 INTENSITY BASED FIBER OPTIC SENSORS While there exist various kinds of fiber optic sensors today, but the most common of these sensors is the hybrid type fiber optic sensor which depends upon intensity modulation in order to carry out the measurements (Zako et al., 1995) In the figure below, we can see a vibration sensor. In this vibration sensor, there exist two optical fibers. The functioning of this fiber optic sensor is quite simple. In this fiber optic sensor, light enters from one side. And when this light exits from the other side, it exits in the form of a cone and the angle of this cone depends on two parameters. The two parameters upon which the angle of this cone depends are: Firstly, it depends on the index of refraction of the core Secondly, it depends on the cladding of the optical fiber Also, the amount of light captured by the second optic fiber depends on a number of factors. The prominent factors on which the amount of light captured depend are: It depends on the acceptance angle It also depends on the distance â€Å"d† between the optical fibers Another type of fiber optic sensor is the flexible mounted mirror sensor. The important characteristics of this sensor are: In this case, a mirror is mounted which is used to respond to external parameters such as pressure. The modulation in intensity is caused the shifts in the mirror position. These sensors are used in a variety of applications such as door closures. In a door closure, a reflective strip is used. These sensors are used to measure small variations and displacements 3.4 LINEAR POSITION SENSORS In todays world, linear position sensors have become widely applicable. They are being used for various purposes (Zako et al., 1995). In many of the linear positioning sensors, wavelength division multiplexing is used. An illustration of the linear position sensor is shown in the figure below. The various components of this linear position sensor are: It consists of a broadband light source It consists of various detectors as shown in the figure above It also consists of wavelength division multiplexing element which acts as the principal component of this instrument. It also consists of an encoder card In the example above, a broadband light source is utilized. The light from this broadband source is carried to a wavelength division multiplexing system with the aid of a single optic fiber. The wavelength division multiplexing system is used to determine the linear position. Another linear motion sensing method which is very widely used today and is quite similar to the method discussed above is known as the time division multiplexing method. This method is illustrated with the aid of a figure shown below. In this method instead of a broadband light source a light pulse is used. Here, the combination of the returned signals takes place. As a result of this combination of the returned signals, the net signal which is produced moves onto the position of the encoder card. The main areas in which these intensity based fiber optic sensors have found application are: In commercial aircrafts In military aircrafts In these applications these modern sensors have performed quite well and are at par with the performance of the conventional sensors. But, because of the various advantages these sensors enjoy over and above the conventional sensors, these modern sensors are bound to replace the conventional sensors in the years to come. 3.5 LIQUID LEVEL SENSORS This is another type of intensity based fiber optic sensor. In the functioning of this sensor, the principle of total internal reflection is utilized. Thus, in these sensors the refraction index of the glass and the fiber occupy the pivotal role. These sensors can be utilized for a variety of purposes. The most prominent of its applications are: Measurement of pressure changes in gels Measurement of pressure changes in various liquids Measurement of refractive index changes in gels Measurement of refractive index changes in different types of liquids Measurement of the level of a liquid in a vessel and this application is utilized in various industries to measure liquid levels These sensors have an accuracy of about 5 percent and are gaining importance in various industries for their usefulness. 3.6 SOFO SENSORS These are fiber optic sensors which are utilized for strain measurement. These sensors have become quite popular owing to their innate merits. Out of all the fiber optic sensors, these sensors are the ones which are being used most extensively today. These sensors are being used to measure curvature and various other parameters in giant civil structures. These sensors form a part of the interferometric system (Vurpillot et al., 1998). Also, these sensors have the ability of measuring the parameters in an absolute manner using low-coherent light. The important properties of these sensors are: These fiber optic sensors enjoy a high resolution. The resolution of these sensors is 2  µm These sensors can be of varied lengths. Their length can be as small as 0.2m or can be as large as 20m. Also, these sensors have the property of being temperature compensated The SOFO system setup consists of a number of equipments. The main components of the SOFO system setup are: It consists of a fiber optic sensor which forms the crux of this monitoring system. It is the most important component of the monitoring system. It consists of a sensor chain with partial reflectors. One terminal of this sensor is connected to the coupler Another terminal of the sensor chain with partial reflectors is connected to the LED. The coupler in turn is connected to the photo diode and a mobile mirror. This whole portable reading unit is connected to portable computer terminal. This ensures that that the whole monitoring system can be taken to the location and can be directly used at site. These sensors can be utilized in two ways. They can either be embedded in the structure at the time of the construction of the structure. Or, they can used to measure the various parameters externally. Though in both the cases, that is, in case of embedding or in the case of external anchoring, the performance of the sensors remains the same, but still, in modern smart structures, embedding is preferred (Perez 2001). This is because, in the case of embedded sensors, the sensors continuously measure the parameters and are easy to manage. Whereas in the older structures, where embedding is not preferred, external anchoring is used. Chapter 4: CASE STUDIES Case study 1: Monitoring of San Giorgio pier San Giorgio pier is a massive concrete structure. Its length is about 400metres. It